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1. Policy Briefs Concise summaries that present research findings and policy recommendations on key economic issues to inform policymakers and stakeholders.2. Research Papers In-depth studies and scholarly articles that explore various aspects of economic theories and empirical research, contributing to academic discourse and understanding.3. Working Papers Preliminary reports on ongoing research that are circulated to encourage discussion and suggestions for revision before final publication.4. Theses and Dissertations: CPP Thesis: Rigorous academic research focused on pertinent policy issues, typically by candidates of the Collaborative PhD Program. CMAP Thesis: Scholarly works by Master's candidates involved in the Collaborative Master's in Economics Program, showcasing original research in the Economics sector. CMAAE Thesis: Advanced research endeavors by Master's students under the Collaborative Master's in Agricultural and Applied Economics, contributing to knowledge in agricultural economics and related fields CMAAE Thesis5. Senior Policy Seminar papers African Economic Research Consortium (AERC) holds a Senior Policy Seminar annually. This conference is hosted by AERC and sometimes jointly with a partner. AERC convenes this forum to provide high level African policy makers the opportunity to come together to dialogue on the results of research conducted by AERC and its affiliates, exchange policy experiences and interact with the researchers in an atmosphere of peers. The themes of these seminars are selected on the basis of topicality and contemporary interest to African policy making.6. Other Publications A diverse range of documents including, but not limited to, conference papers, book chapters, and research updates that do not fall under the conventional categories.
Recent Submissions
Publication
Agricultural Production Diversity and Market Access: Implications for DietaryDiversity among Smallholder Farm Households in Cameroon
(AERC, 2026) Anchang Juliana Adjem; Meliko Majory; Uwem Essia
Overnutrition, overweight, and obesity as consequences of nutrition transition are a growing concern of public policy in less developed countries, where it poses a triple burden even to rural areas battling with undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies. The complex link between agriculture and nutritional outcomes has been well established. However, studies often overlook key socio-cultural dimensions of nutrition outcomes in the context of the nutrition transition and the increasing triple burden of malnutrition in rural agricultural communities. This study seeks to investigate the implications of agricultural production diversity on dietary diversity in rural smallholder farm households. We hypothesize that in addition to the contribution of production diversity and the mediating role of market access, socio-cultural factors have a significant influence on household dietary diversity and quality. Data was obtained from a cross-sectional survey of smallholder farm households in the Southwest Region, Cameroon, from 2018 to 2019. The effect of agricultural production diversity and better market access was estimated to be positive using both Generalised Poisson regression and Instrumental Variable two Stage Least Square or Instrumental Variable Poisson models. While better market access plays a positive and significant role in nutrition security and diet quality for smallholder farm households, we found that agricultural production diversity has a greater positive effect on diet outcomes than market access. Similarly, households with women empowerment indicators and better knowledge on nutrition were associated with better diet outcomes. We found a greater proportion of households with unfavourable attitudes relating to socio-cultural norms and perception. We posit that agricultural and food policies and investments should adopt an integrated approach that aligns with societal and cultural needs in promoting market access and encouraging more nutritious food choices to effectively and sustainably tackle challenges to poor nutrition. However, longitudinal studies are essential and will provide rigour on the role agricultural production diversity plays in the nutritional and health status of rural households in Cameroon.
Publication
Safeguarding Nutrition in Togo: Policy Responses to Rising Food Prices
(AERC, 2026) Amy KA; Assion Lawson Sipoaka; Françoise Okah Efogo; Mamatchi Melila
Rising food prices significantly reduce food consumption and worsen the nutritional status of households in Togo.
The impacts are gender-differentiated and vary between urban and rural areas.
Universal policy responses can cushion shocks but place substantial pressure on public finances.
Well-targeted, nutrition-sensitive cash or in-kind transfers are the most effective short-term policy response.
Publication
Enhancing Fish Consumption Through Retail Market Policy Interventions in Kenya
(AERC, 2026) Kevin Okoth Ouko; Clarietta Chagwiza; Modock Oketch; Maureen Jepkorir Cheserek; Florence Achieng Opondo
• Promoting fish consumption provides an affordable, nutrient-dense approach to addressing
nutrition challenges in Siaya County, Kenya. Policy support for locally available fish can enhance
dietary quality, particularly for children, pregnant and lactating women, and low-income
households.
• Household fish consumption is shaped by market systems including infrastructure, food safety,
and pricing, with rural and peri-urban households facing the greatest access barriers, underscoring
the need for targeted market investments.
Publication
Protecting Household Nutrition in Senegal amid Food Price Shocks: Policy Options to Safeguard Vulnerable Populations
(AERC, 2026) Amy KA; Françoise Okah Efogo,; Assion Lawson SIpoaka; Mamatchi Melila
Food inflation poses a major threat to food and nutrition security in Senegal. In November 2022, food inflation reached 14.1%, significantly reducing households' purchasing power and access to quality food. While progress has been made in reducing chronic malnutrition, acute malnutrition has increased, highlighting a growing vulnerability to price shocks.
This policy brief assesses the effects of rising food prices on Senegalese households using a computable general equilibrium model (CGE) combined with a household-level microsimulation module. The results show that an increase in international food prices leads to a 0.34 per cent decline in food consumption, a deterioration in energy intake (+0.28 nutritional poverty points), and a marked deterioration in essential micronutrient intake.
Publication
Impact of Interest Rate Controls on Risk-taking Behavior of Kenyan Commercial Banks
(AERC, 2026) Wytone Yohane Jombo
This study investigates the impact of interest rate capping on banks’ risk-taking behaviour in Kenya, a topic that has been underexplored in the existing literature. The study uses the non-performing loans ratio and z-score as proxies for risk appetite and employs a Difference-in-Difference (DiD) approach to analyse data from 26 commercial banks from 2013 to 2019. The study overcomes the challenge of the universal application of the cap across all Kenyan banks by capitalizing on the intensity of interest rates charged by different banks before the capping policy. The findings suggest that banks’ risk appetite significantly increased post-capping, indicating the negative impact of interest rate controls on banks. This is consistent with the general trend observed in related literature. The effects vary across bank peer categories, with medium-sized banks exhibiting the most pronounced changes. The study also reveals that the effect of interest rate capping on risk-taking behaviour varies based on the capital adequacy levels of banks. Based on these findings, the study calls for a reconsideration of the universal application of interest rate caps and suggests tailored approaches based on bank size or capital adequacy. It urges regulatory bodies to adopt a dynamic approach and conduct periodic reviews to manage the evolving risk landscape. The study emphasizes the importance of continuous dialogue between regulatory bodies and financial institutions to foster adaptive regulatory frameworks that balance stimulating economic growth and maintaining financial stability.
Publication
Financial Development Benefits of Banking Sector Globalization in Africa: Is There a Cross-border Banking Threshold Effect?
(AERC, 2026) Christian Lambert Nguena; Sostella Arida Tchouala Feutsa
Banking globalization’s effects on financial development in Africa are challenging to define, even without considering financial crises. By utilizing panel data and threshold regression techniques on a comprehensive database covering 47 Sub-Saharan African countries and 429 commercial banks from 1996 to 2020, we examine the non-linear impact between banking globalization and financial development, mainly to detect at what level a country should accept cross-border banking phenomenon. The statistical analysis reveals a non-linear impact of banking globalization on financial development, which remains consistent across different proxies and estimation methods. This fundamental finding enabled us to identify the threshold point and distinguish various regimes using panel threshold regression techniques. The findings confirm a U-shaped relationship, where the negative impact of cross-border banking activity is present but becomes positive after surpassing a threshold of -28.15. Subpar levels of banking globalization yield unfavorable outcomes in terms of consumption smoothing, volatility reduction, and overall financial sector development. To benefit from banking globalization, each country should ensure that cross-border banking activity exceeds the threshold of -28.15. Additional recommendations are discussed in the main text.
Publication
Fiscal Policy and External Imbalances in Ghana: Twin Deficits in Time of Rising Debt
(AERC, 2026-12) Ekpeno L. Effiong
The recent rise in debt accumulation among SSA countries has raised concerns of a possible looming debt crisis. High debt levels often lead to higher fiscal deficits and a potential fiscal crisis, which can affect future growth prospects and external adjustment. This study seeks to investigate the role of public debt on the relationship between fiscal policy and current account for Ghana, which is confronted with a high risk of debt distress and persistent twin deficits. Allowing for nonlinearity and state-dependence in the relationship between fiscal policy and the current account, the paper finds evidence of the twin deficits phenomenon for a low-debt environment; whereas for the high-debt environment, the relationship is negative and relatively stable, though statistically insignificant, which supports the Ricardian Equivalence hypothesis. Specifically, fiscal expansion on the current account is subdued in the high-debt environment, but has a sizable and significant positive effect in the low-debt environment. Thus, fiscal consolidation along with debt restructuring may be necessary for economic recovery, ensuring both debt and current account sustainability, especially in times of high debt distress.
Publication
Horizontal Equity in the Use of Maternal Health Services in Cameroon
(AERC, 2023-12) Saleu Feumeni Josiane
An equitable healthcare system should be the health policy goal of all countries. The objective of this study is to measure horizontal equity in the use of maternal health services in Cameroon from 2004 to 2018. Specifically, it aims to determine the level of inequity in assistance during delivery and in the intake of tetanus vaccine from 2004 to 2018. It identifies sources of inequity in assistance during delivery and at the intake of tetanus vaccine. To accomplish this, we used the indirect standardization of health care method and the 2004, 2011, and 2018 Demographic and Health Surveys. The results show that there are significant inequities in wealth, education, region of residence, and in the access to the nearest health facilities. Furthermore, sociodemographic and economic inequities are associated with health care utilization inequities. A health policy implementation monitoring team is therefore essential if the observed inequities in the use of maternal health services in Cameroon are to be significantly reduced.
Publication
The Effect of Nutrition Knowledge and Women's Empowerment on Nutrition Outcomes of Children in Rural Ethiopia
(AERC, 2020) Mequanint B. Melesse
Child malnutrition in its various forms remains widespread in Ethiopia, and children often consume poor diets characterized by low diversity. Efforts seeking to improve child nutrition have placed a strong emphasis on women’s role. Women’s nutrition knowledge and empowerment are vital impact pathways for nutrition-sensitive programs and interventions. This paper examines the effects of women’s nutrition knowledge and empowerment on child nutrition outcomes using survey data from rural Ethiopia. Using an instrumental variable (IV) approach to address potential endogeneity concerns, women’s nutrition knowledge and empowerment are found to have strong and significant effects on reducing child stunting. The interaction between nutrition knowledge and women’s empowerment appears to have additional power in explaining child stunting. A disaggregated analysis of empowerment reveals that empowering women in agricultural household decisions and increasing their access to and control of economic resources are more promising for improving child nutrition. Overall, the findings suggest efforts targeting to improve child nutrition in rural Ethiopia need to ensure that they are complemented by efforts to improve women’s nutrition knowledge and empowerment.
Publication
Tax Compliance by African Businesses: What Matters and What Doesn’t
(AERC, 2026) Uwem Ibanga; Alex Iriabije; Chuku Chuku
Small- and medium-sized enterprises in Africa are considered a high-risk group for tax noncompliance. This is so because they have to self-assess and self-report their taxable income, which literally implies ”paying taxes from their pockets”, unlike other groups such as individuals and big corporations. This study seeks to identify the factors that affect tax compliance levels by small- and medium-sized enterprises in Africa, especially those factors that are related to the macro-institutional environment. We attempt to answer three fundamental questions: (i) What determines tax compliance by African businesses? (ii) What macro-institutional factors are important for tax compliance levels? And (iii), what is the relationship between tax compliance levels and the productivity and propensity of a firm to innovate? We use conditional probability regression models to analyse firm-manager responses in different waves of the World Bank Enterprise Surveys for five countries. After controlling for potential econometric problems arising from concerns about the “truthfulness” and “missingness” of the responses, the findings show that what matters for tax compliance of businesses in Africa are the firm’s legal status, the tax administration system, corruption perception, licenses and permit ,customs and trade regulations, and the complexity of the tax system. Interestingly, our results show that firms that indulge in tax evasion are the same firms that are less likely to innovate, although this conclusion is nuanced in many cases.
Publication
Understanding Drivers of Adoption of Crop Bio-Fortification in Zimbabwe: Implications for Food Policy
(AERC, 2026) Kingstone Mujeyi; Jackqeline Mutambara; Angeline Mujeyi; Victor Okoruwa
The study used secondary data collected from 2,913 households to estimate actual and potential adoption rates of bio-fortified crop varieties in Zimbabwe and determinants of exposure to and adoption of bio-fortification. It found that 88.6% of the households were aware of the technology while 46.3% had accessed at least one variety of the bio-fortified crops. Overall, 47.0% had been fully exposed to at least one bio-fortified crop variety, thereby limiting the actual adoption rate to about 41.0%, when in fact the potential adoption rate could have reached 87.0% had the entire population in the eight districts been exposed. The exposed sample adoption rate of 88.0% implies a substantial population adoption gap of 46.0%, emanating from the incomplete exposure of the target population to the technology. Results of Average Treatment Effects (ATE) adoption estimation using probit regression analysis found age of household head, size of arable land, membership to saving and lending groups, contact with extension, access to market information, agro-ecological potential, farmer perception and irrigation to be significant drivers of adoption. The study recommends increased promotional activities for the bio-fortified crops centred on the provision of well-structured agricultural support services coupled with nutrition-sensitive market information and training.
Publication
PARTICIPATION FINANCIERE DES USAGERS ET DEMANDE DE SOINS DE SANTE : UNE MISE EN EVIDENCE AU CAMEROUN
(AERC, 2026) NKOUMOU NGOA Gaston Brice
Cet article utilise les données EDS-MICS collectées en 2011 par l’Institut National de la Statistique pour analyser l’effet de la participation financière des usagers sur le choix du prestataire de soins de santé en estimant un modèle Probit multinomial. Les résultats montrent que le prix des soins est positivement associé à la probabilité de consulter les hôpitaux de référence et les centres de santé publics par rapport aux agents non médicaux. En revanche, l’accroissement du prix des soins diminue la probabilité de visiter un prestataire de soins du secteur privé au bénéfice des agents du secteur non médical. Les pouvoirs publics devraient encourager la consommation des soins de santé dans les structures de santé publiques en rapprochant davantage ces structures des ménages et en soutenant financièrement les charges supportées par les malades dans ces structures. Aussi, ils devraient s’assurer que la hausse des prix des soins chez les prestataires de soins privés s’accompagne d’une amélioration de la qualité des soins afin d’encourager leur consommation plutôt que les soins du secteur non médical
Publication
EFFET DU SYNDICALISME SUR L’EFFICIENCE TECHNIQUE DES ENTREPRISES EN CÔTE D’IVOIRE
(AERC, 2026) N’CHO LAUGBA ALINE DESIREE
Cette étude analyse les implications du syndicalisme sur l'efficience technique des entreprises en Côte d'Ivoire en utilisant des données collectées entre novembre 2013 et mars 2014 par la Cellule d’Analyse de Politiques Economiques du Cires (CAPEC). En particulier, l’étude détermine et compare les distributions d’efficience technique entre les entreprises syndiquées et non syndiquées, analyse l’effet du syndicalisme sur l’efficience technique, estime et décompose l’écart d’efficience technique entre les deux groupes d’entreprises. La méthode Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) est utilisée pour obtenir les scores d’efficience technique de chaque firme. Les scores obtenus servent d’abord à une analyse de dominance stochastique, puis à l’estimation de l’effet du syndicalisme sur l’efficience technique par la régression tronquée de la méthode DEA à double bootstrap et la décomposition de Oaxaca-Blinder (OB). L’analyse de la dominance stochastique montre que la présence d’employés syndiqués n’entraine pas plus d’efficience. L’effet moyen estimé par la méthode DEA tronquée à double bootstrap est positif mais faible. La décomposition OB montre aussi que la présence d’employés syndiqués n’implique pas que les entreprises soient plus efficientes. D’une part, ces résultats soutiennent l’idée que les syndicats et les entreprises coopèrent. D’autre part, ces résultats ont des implications pour les politiques publiques dans la mesure où contrôler la relation syndicats-employeurs permettrait d’optimiser les gains de productivité tirés de cette coopération.
Publication
Access to Credit and Agricultural Productivity
(AERC, 2026) Achille Barnabé ASSOUTO; Dewanou Jean-Luc HOUNGBEME
Access to agricultural credit remains a critical challenge in developing countries, limiting the adoption of modern technologies essential for productivity growth. This study investigates the impact of credit access on agricultural productivity among maize producers in Benin, utilizing data from a 2016 survey conducted by the National Agricultural Research Institute of Benin. Employing an endogenous switching regression model, the analysis accounts for selection bias and unobserved heterogeneity. Results indicate that access to credit increases productivity by 40.07% per hectare and 31.97% per FCFA invested. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive policies to enhance agricultural financing and productivity.
Publication
Identifying Institutional Structures for Data Policy and Governance Frameworks: Case for The Education Sector in Kenya
(AERC, 2026) Eldah Onsomu; Gideon Nyakundi; Japheth Kathenge
The population aged 35 years and below constitutes 75% of the population in Kenya, with 36.1% of the population aged between 15 and 35 years, presenting a significant development opportunity. If properly educated and skilled, this demographic could drive innovation, productivity, and sustainable development. However, education systems across the sub-Saharan region, Kenya included, often suffer from inefficiencies that stem from weak data coordination and management. This study aims to critically assess the state of data governance in Kenya’s education sector and the effects on education outcomes. Five foundational pillars of data governance—Roles and Responsibilities, Privacy Standards, Policies, Tools and Practices, and Processes and Procedures—were assessed using six key operational dimensions.
The overall Data Governance Index (DGI) shows a clear and positive relationship with the Human Development Index (HDI) across Kenya’s counties, confirming that counties with stronger data governance frameworks tend to achieve higher levels of education outcomes and development. Counties with well-structured data systems—characterized by high data quality, accessibility, timeliness, security, metadata documentation, and stewardship—demonstrate stronger planning capabilities, more efficient service delivery, and better outcomes in the education sector.
However, main constraints affecting data governance in the education sector include: Undefined roles and responsibilities in counties; Lack of dedicated data teams and committees; Inconsistent funding for data leadership and capacity building; Incomplete or outdated metadata in counties; Lack of standard documentation guidelines and tools and Limited staff awareness and technical capacity.
Interventions towards improving data governance in the education sector include: implementing mandatory data quality checks and validation protocols; automating collection processes to reduce manual errors; and providing training on data accuracy and integrity. Enforce encryption, access controls, and multi-factor authentication; Provide regular staff training on cybersecurity; Monitor and report compliance with data protection laws. Develop open-access platforms for education data; Standardize accessibility policies across counties; Create user feedback channels for improvement; Enforce routine data submission timelines; Invest in mobile data collection tools and dashboards; Schedule periodic data audits; Institutionalize stewardship roles and guidelines; Form cross-sectoral education data committees; Allocate dedicated budget lines for data leadership activities; Adopt national metadata standards; Train staff on metadata use and documentation; Establish centralized metadata repositories per county.
Publication
SMALLHOLDER AGRICULTURE COMMERCIALIZATION DYNAMICS UNDER CHANGING CLIMATE: EVIDENCE FROM RURAL ETHIOPIA
(AERC, 2026) Takesure Tozooneyi; Clifton Makate
Smallholder crop commercialization, which implies the engagement of farmers with output markets, has been for long a popular development policy for alleviating rural poverty in many countries in Sub-Sahara Africa. The success of smallholder crop commercialization initiatives lies in developing robust value chains that link farmers to inputs and outputs markets, by so doing improving their welfare from the consequent market-based exchanges. However, the development of these value chains must overcome systemic investment risks. One such risk is climate risk, particularly rainfall, temperature variability, and shocks (e.g., drought and heat stress). Commercialization dynamics under changing climate remain largely under-explored in extant literature. This study explores how smallholder commercialization decisions and outcomes are evolving under elevated climate risk exposure and other socioeconomic challenges affecting smallholders in Ethiopia. Precisely, we evaluate the dynamics of the influence of long-term climate variability and recurrent climate shocks in driving crop output market participation in Ethiopia. The study uses longitudinal household panel data for Ethiopia spanning seven years (2012-2019), complemented with historical climate data for over 30 years (1980-2018). We rely on measures of the degree of participation in output markets as indicators of agricultural commercialization. We apply appropriate latent variables models in a Correlated Random Effects framework, which helps us address the potential endogeneity problem associated with output market participation decisions emanating from unobservable household heterogeneity. Results reveal recurrent climate variability and specific shocks (drought, flood, and heat stress) to strongly influence crop output commercialization. Also, investments in commercial input purchases offer resilience to farmers and help sustain output market participation under climate variability and stress. Efforts to upgrade smallholder agricultural value chains should be in tandem with steps toward protecting production from climate risks.
Publication
COVID-19 Shock, Social Protection, and Food Insecurity in Nigeria
(AERC, 2026) Pouirkèta Rita NIKIEMA,; Khadijat Busola AMOLEGBE,; Gbêtondji Melaine Armel NONVIDE
We seek to understand the effect of COVID-19 and assess the effects of social protection in mitigating the effects of the COVID-19 shock on household food insecurity status. We employed the World Bank Living Standard Measurement Survey for Nigeria, focusing on the dataset collected before the COVID-19 shock and during the post-COVID-19 phone survey. We employed a difference-in-differences method and used all the individual measures of food insecurity. We also explored the heterogeneous effects of social protection across the gender of the recipient, household location, and wealth status. Our results show that food insecurity is greater in all households after the pandemic shock. We found that social protection is effective at mitigating the effects of the pandemic and that the effect is greater for cash assistance. The mitigating effect is greater among female-headed households, poor households, those in rural areas, and those involved in farming. The findings of this study highlight the necessity of having a well-organized social protection programme. In particular, policies aimed at promoting cash assistance among female-headed households, poor individuals, those in rural areas, and those involved in farming can have important implications for improving the food security of households in Nigeria.
Publication
Economic Well-Being of Refugees and Nationals in Kenya: A Comparative Panel Data Analysis
(AERC, 2026) SULEIMAN HASSAN MAALIM
This study addresses the economic well-being of refugees and host communities in Kenya, highlighting a significant gap in existing empirical findings due to the fragmented approach of previous research. By conducting a comprehensive comparative analysis, the study examines the welfare determinants of refugees living in various setups; urban and camp environments alongside Kenyan households. Utilizing longitudinal panel data, the research aims to provide dynamic insights into the factors influencing economic stability and resilience among these populations. The analysis reveals critical discrepancies in service provision and experiences of discrimination faced by refugees, exacerbated by language barriers and legal challenges in accessing essential services.
Key findings indicate that income and economic participation are significant predictors of well-being, with urban refugees demonstrating higher sensitivity to income changes compared to their camp counterparts. Additionally, larger household sizes negatively impact welfare, while education levels and gender dynamics play crucial roles in determining household well-being. The study emphasizes the importance of tailored interventions that enhance economic empowerment, particularly for women-headed households, and improve access to education and health services. Furthermore, fostering partnerships between NGOs and local governments is essential for creating a supportive environment that addresses the unique needs of refugees. Overall, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding refugee welfare in Kenya and offers policy recommendations aimed at promoting equity and facilitating the integration of refugees into host communities.
Publication
Taxation and Capital Flight in Cameroon
(AERC, 2026-02) DONGMO ZAMKE Jonas Juléo
This article presents a new facet of the relationship between natural resources and capital flight. The objective of the study is to analyse the role played by regulations on natural resource exploitation in the level of capital flight in Cameroon. This objective allows us to explore the impact of tax reforms on the level of capital flight and, consequently, on the volume of rent derived from natural resource exploitation. An analysis of the historical evolution of Cameroon's tax system and capital flight between 1985 and 2008 has highlighted a series of reforms to the tax system (oil and forestry) that took place in Cameroon in 1999. The synthetic control method developed by Alberto Abadie was used to examine the impact of these reforms on the level of capital flight in Cameroon. The main finding was that improvements to the tax regime for natural resource exploitation led to a substantial average decline in the level of capital flight from the country. In view of this finding, we suggest that the Cameroonian government place particular emphasis on the application of the current tax regime and explore the avenues for optimisation proposed in the rest of the study.
Publication
Unlocking the Potential of Food SMEs to Boost Income and Food Security in South Africa
(AERC, 2026) Selma T. Karuaihe; Wegayehu Fitawek; Enoch Owusu-Sekyere; Herbert Ntuli; Hettie C. Schönfeldt
From the business side, women dominate the food SME sector in South Africa, with majority being Black South Africans.
• The type of food SME (i.e., spaza shops, restaurants and fruit and vegetables) has a significant impact on income1.
● SMEs operating restaurants generate the highest weekly income, making cooked foods more profitable than selling fruits and vegetables, which is the least profitable of all.
● In terms of food security, nearly half (48%) of households had an adequate diet, consuming more than six food groups in the study area.
● The food security status of the household was determined by multiple socio-economic factors, including the household age, sex, education level, family size, ethnicity, number of working adults, household income and food expenditure.
● The informal food markets play a crucial role in ensuring food and nutrition security, with over 60% of consumers purchasing fruits and vegetables from street vendors.
● Spaza shops serve as key sources of grains, nuts, legumes, dairy, poultry, and meat, making them essential for food accessibility and affordability in low-income communities.
• Policy recommendations to support SMEs selling fruits and vegetables should include training on proper handling, cooling, and temperature management of fresh produce