PASHFARM

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Addressing Gender Inequalities and Strengthening Small and Medium-Scale Enterprises to Improve Food and Nutrition Security
(AERC, 2025) Opata, Patience; Ume, Chukwuma O.; Ezeibe, Adaku; Anugwa, Ifeoma Q.; Davidson, Gloria; Onogwu, Elizabeth
Women play a critical yet undervalued role within small and medium-scale seafood and fruit enterprises in Nigeria. The involvement of women in these enterprises is crucial, as they frequently manage both the production and the processing aspects, which are pivotal for the sustainability of these businesses and the nutrition of communities. These disparities stem from unequal access to resources, decision-making authority, and market information, which are compounded by cultural norms and institutional biases. Recent studies have shown that when women control more household resources, the outcomes include improved household nutrition and health, higher levels of education among children, and overall enhanced household resilience against economic shocks. However, while women own 42.1% of micro-enterprises, their presence declines sharply to 13.6% in small enterprises and is nearly absent in medium enterprises. Although women make up almost 70% of the agricultural labour force, they receive less than 10% of available agricultural credit and control only about 14% of registered land, limiting their ability to expand businesses and access profitable markets. A 2024 study reveals that women-led businesses in Nigeria generate 34% less revenue than male-led counterparts due to these structural challenges. This imbalance exacerbates economic inequality and hinders Nigeria’s progress toward inclusive food system development and national food security.
Addressing the Gendered Impacts of Food Price Volatility in Ghana: Policy Options for Nutrition and Food Security
(AERC, 2025) Ofori, Isaac K.; Asmah, Emmanuel E.; Nsiah-Asamoah, Christiana N.
Food price volatility is undermining food security and nutrition in Ghana and requires immediate policy intervention (Ofori, Asmah & Nsiah-Asamoah, 2025). Climate shocks, global market disruptions, and exchange rate instability are driving food inflation and worsening food insecurity (von Grebmer et al., 2024; FAO, 2023). Female-headed households are hit hardest because they lack equal access to land, credit, inputs, and social protection. The government must act by tightening market stabilisation measures, investing in climate-resilient food systems, strengthening exchange-rate and import management policies, and expanding gender-responsive social protection and financial services to reduce these vulnerabilities.
Advancing Gender-Responsive Support to Food SMEs to Improve Access to Safe, Affordable and Nutritious Food in Malawi
(AERC, 2026) Gitau, Raphael K.; Wekesa, Bright; Harawa, Philip P.; Shashi, Njile Isaack; Ninsiima, Racheal; Chelang'a, Naomi Chebiwot; Mugisha, Baine Euzobia; Korir Emily6
Small and Medium-scale food vendors operating in local markets in Lilongwe are crucial in the provision of food to households, especially those from low-income stratum. Despite their significance, food vendors’ ability to supply consumers with affordable, safe and nutritious food is constrained by limited accessibility to business credit, limited accessibility to business registration services, limited accessibility to business support groups and mentorship, and limited accessibility to and utilisation of sanitation facilities in the local markets. It is imperative, therefore, to cascade business registration services to local market levels; devise and roll-out gender-inclusive mechanisms to incentivise food traders to register their enterprises; strictly enforce food safety measures among food traders at all times and undertake periodic assessments of business development needs of food SMEs and implement appropriate actions. Food vendors as well, through the leadership in the local markets, should always be pro-active in demanding hygienic, safe and inclusive market infrastructure from duty bearers; be pro-active in identifying and engaging business development facilitators, and facilitate development and strengthening of business support groups among the food SMEs.
Breaking Barriers to Nutrition: Policy Pathways for Sustainable Fruit and Vegetable Access and Consumption in Kenya
(AERC, 2025) Cheserek, Maureen Jepkorir; Ouko, Kevin; Chagwiza, Clarietta; Opondo, Florence Achieng’; Korir, Mark
Gender disparities shape consumer purchasing patterns for fruits and vegetables (F&Vs) in urban retail markets. Women predominantly buy from informal markets, while men prefer the formal retail outlets, underscoring the need for genderresponsive retail and infrastructure planning. Fruit and vegetable consumption among Kenyan adults remains critically low, despite accessibility to formal and informal retail markets. Only 3.1% of women and 4.5% of men meet the recommended daily intake of five or more servings, highlighting the need to address barriers related to affordability, awareness, and access. Expanding access to safe, inclusive, and conveniently located markets is essential, particularly in underserved areas with limited availability and access to fresh and affordable nutritious foods. Gender-responsive policies and market regulations are vital to achieving equitable food environments. Strengthening these frameworks will promote fairness in retail access and support healthier consumer choices. Targeted consumer education and behaviour change initiatives are needed to boost fruit and vegetable intake. Investing in tailored awareness and nutrition campaigns can foster sustainable improvements in dietary habits.
Breaking Gender Barriers in Food Retail: Pathways to Sustainable and Healthy Food Systems in Cameroon
(AERC, 2025) Ayuk, Justine E.; Kareem, Fatima Olanike; Assoua, Joe E.; Bomdzele, Eric Junior
In developing countries, the informal food retail sector is strategic for improving access to food, particularly for poor urban individuals and households (Skinner, 2016). Women dominate the informal food retail sector in Africa and constitute the majority of food vendors in open markets in many poor rural and urban communities in sub-Saharan Africa. According to the ILO (2023), close to 90% of African women dominate the non-agricultural informal economy. In Cameroon, 68.3% of women work as independent entrepreneurs in the informal sector, compared to 48.2% of men, according to the Cameroon National Institute of Statistics [NIS] (NIS, 2022). As key players in informal food retail systems, women retailers often have direct relationships with local farmers, markets, and food suppliers, enabling them to source a diverse range of food products. With growing rates of urbanisation (i.e., 57.6% urban population in 2020 compared to 27.3% in 1976) (UN-DESA, 2018), the informal food The retail sector continues to play a critical role in urban and peri-urban food systems, enhancing access to a diversified diet for medium and low-income households in Cameroon.
Bridging Gender Productivity Gaps in Cameroon’s Agrifood Micro-Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
(AERC, 2026) Ousmanou Njikam; Coralie Paloma Mbengono; Valentin Désiré Guiama
• Rigorous decomposition analysis reveals both the extent of the gender productivity gap and the underlying drivers shaping Cameroon’s agrifood micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs). • The analysis distinguishes between formal and informal agrifood MSMEs, uncovering important differences in how gender gaps manifest across enterprise types. • Differences in returns to inputs drive the gender gap in both formal and informal agrifood MSMEs, pointing to persistent structural constraints and potential gender-based discrimination. • Structural determinants of the gender gap operate in two levels: common factors across sectors, including sectoral segregation, number of children, and vocational training and apprenticeship, and sector-specific and sector specific constraints, such as low education attainment, limited business networks and social connections, restricted access to bank credit, and low awareness of public policies). • Mechanisms driving productivity disproportionately affect enterprises established through bank loans, small-sized enterprises (10-25 employees), and agrifood MSMEs operating for more than three years. • Gender-responsive policy interventions are critical to achieving productivity parity. Priority should be given to reduce inequalities in (i) family and social responsibilities, (ii) educational attainment and training, (iii) access to formal finance, (iv) sectoral choice, (v) networks and social capital, and (vi) awareness and uptake of public support policies.
Building Trust and Gender Equity to Increase Biofortified Food Uptake and Consumption in Malawi
(AERC, 2025) Chatenga, Humphrey; Ng’ong’ola, Chimwemwe; Phiri, Ronald; Kaphaika, Chrispin; Chimseu, Patrick K.; Tione, Sarah
Malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies continue to undermine Malawi’s human-capital development. About 38 % of children under five are stunted, and 63% of women are zinc-deficient (NSO, 2024; NSO, 2016; UNICEF, 2023). These figures represent a serious public health threat. They impair children’s physical growth and limit cognitive development. To address these gaps, Malawi has adopted biofortification of staple crops such as maize and sweet potato, a strategy recognized globally as cost-effective and nutrition-sensitive (Bouis & Saltzman, 2017). Biofortification increases the micronutrient density of food crops through plant breeding or agronomic practices. It also makes nutritious diets more accessible to low-income rural households (De Moura, Bouis, & Hotz, 2017; Bouis & Saltzman, 2017). However, despite the demonstrated nutritional and economic benefits, adoption and sustained consumption remain below expectations (Kaphaika et al., 2023). In many communities, socio-cultural norms and socialisation networks guide how people learn, share information, and decide whom to trust (Beaman et al., 2018; Ren et al., 2022). However, the role of social trust in these decisions is often overlooked (Han, 2022). Gender inequities, which strongly influence who receives information and who acts on it, are also inadequately addressed in policy (Mgalamadzi et al., 2024). Trust determines whether households view new crops as safe, valuable, and worth integrating into their diets. When trust is weak, adoption slows or stops entirely (Ren et al., 2022; Han, 2022). Gender inequities further compound these challenges (Ofori et al., 2020).
Enhancing Fish Consumption Through Retail Market Policy Interventions in Kenya
(AERC, 2026) Kevin Okoth Ouko; Clarietta Chagwiza; Modock Oketch; Maureen Jepkorir Cheserek; Florence Achieng Opondo
• Promoting fish consumption provides an affordable, nutrient-dense approach to addressing nutrition challenges in Siaya County, Kenya. Policy support for locally available fish can enhance dietary quality, particularly for children, pregnant and lactating women, and low-income households. • Household fish consumption is shaped by market systems including infrastructure, food safety, and pricing, with rural and peri-urban households facing the greatest access barriers, underscoring the need for targeted market investments.
Enhancing Gender-Responsive Governance in Uganda’s Urban Food Markets: Policy Options from St. Balikuddembe (Owino) and Kalerwe
(AERC, 2025) Gitau, Raphael; Baine, Euzobia M. Mugisha; Ninsiima, Racheal; Chelang'a, Naomi C.; Korir, Emily; Wekesa, Bright; Harawa, Philip Philemon; Shashi, Njile Isack
Urban food markets in Kampala and Wakiso are critical for food access, employment, and women’s enterprise. Women drive food vending but operate under conditions marked by poor sanitation, insecure stall tenure, fragmented governance, and uneven enforcement. These gaps limit their earnings, compromise their safety, and constrain their economic empowerment. Uganda’s Constitution (1995) and several laws and policies, including the National Gender Policy (2007), Markets Act (Cap. 94), Public Health Act (Cap. 281), and Domestic Violence Act (2010), provide a framework for equality and safe workplaces. However, practical implementation in St. Balikuddembe (Owino) and Kalerwe remains gender-blind, with persistent gaps in gender specific infrastructure, grievance redress, and fee transparency. This brief, developed under the Policy Analysis for Sustainable and Healthy Foods in African Retail Markets (PASHFARM) initiative, draws on evidence from St. Balikuddembe (Owino) and Kalerwe markets. Using a qualitative approach guided by Kabeer’s Social Relations Framework, it highlights gender-related constraints, vendor experiences, and opportunities for policy action to build more inclusive and equitable market governance.
Evidence for Impact: Lessons from the PASHFARM Project to Strengthen Food and Nutrition Policy in Africa
(AERC, 2025) Cheserek, Maureen
Malnutrition and unhealthy diets remain the major public health challenges across Africa, driven by limited access to affordable, safe, and nutritious foods. As Nutrition Research Fellow for the African Economic Research Consortium’s PASHFARM project, I observed how locally generated evidence can inform policy and drive transformation towards equitable, resilient, and sustainable food systems. Conducted across 20 African countries, PASHFARM produced 35 research papers and 25 policy briefs to guide policymakers in advancing nutrition-sensitive food systems. Working with 20 multidisciplinary teams and 95 researchers, the initiative highlighted the value of collaboration, mentorship, and shared learning. Knowledge exchange and policy forums fostered cross-disciplinary dialogue, strengthened technical rigor, and supported capacity building. Key policy priorities include strengthening markets and supply chains, incentivizing healthier food production, ensuring nutritious food accessibility, affordability, and safety, promoting genderinclusive food systems, and enhancing evidence-based policymaking. PASHFARM demonstrated that sustainable, equitable food systems are achievable through research-driven collaboration, and sustaining momentum requires continued investment in locally led research, capacity building, and multi-stakeholder engagement.
Food Prices Shocks and Household Nutrition in Ethiopia: A Gender Lens for Policy Response
(AERC, 2025) Mehare, Abule; Hundie, Shemelis Kebede; Abdisa, Lamessa T.
Food prices matter because they directly shape what households can buy and eat. Between the LSMS rounds (2018/19 - 2021/22), Ethiopian households faced higher food price pressure that translated into larger food budget shares and lower dietary diversity. These trends matter for policymakers because diet quality, not just calorie intake, drives child growth, cognitive development, and long-term productivity. Gender matters because women typically manage household food procurement, preparation, and caregiving. When prices rise, female household heads and women caregivers make different trade-offs (for example, prioritizing staple purchases or sacrificing non-food spending) that can protect short-term diets but increase longer-term economic and health risks. Current food security and nutrition strategies are often gender-neutral or insufficiently shockresponsive: this policy gap reduces effectiveness at protecting the most vulnerable during price spikes. Currently, Ethiopia is facing sustained inflation and more frequent climate shocks (droughts and floods). Without targeted, gender-sensitive measures, gains in nutrition and poverty reduction risk reversal.
Gendered Barriers Faced by Food SMEs in Providing Low-Income Consumers with Safe, Affordable, and Nutritious Foods in Nairobi
(AERC, 2025) Gitau, Raphael K.; Wekesa, Bright; Harawa, Philip Philemon; Shashi, Njile Isack; Chebii, Naomi; Ninsiima, Racheal; Korir, Emily; Mugisha, Euzobia Baine
Urban food markets such as Toi and Githurai are central to Nairobi’s food system and livelihoods, especially for low-income households. Like other food markets, these markets are essential settings in the provision of nutritious and affordable food to millions and serve as a key source of self-employment. They provide affordable food to millions and serve as avenues for self-employment and income generation. Traders in these markets often face gendered barriers such as gender insensitive water and sanitation measures, lack of secure stalls, unsafe working environments, especially for women, limited access to finance, biased market policy enforcement practices, and exclusion from leadership of young vendors by experienced ones. Although Kenya’s Constitution (2010) guarantees equality and non-discrimination, and Nairobi City County has enacted trade and inspectorate legislation, implementation has often been gender blind. This results in unsafe working conditions, arbitrary enforcement, and barriers to women’s economic empowerment. Strengthening gender-responsive governance and policies in Toi and Githurai markets is therefore critical to enhance trader livelihoods, ensure fair enforcement, and improve food safety for consumers. This policy brief, drawn from a study under the Policy Analysis for Sustainable and Healthy Foods in African Retail Markets (PASHFARM) project, specifically synthesizes the gendered barriers faced by vendors in the choice, sourcing, and provision of safe, affordable, and nutritious food to low-income households in Toi and Githurai markets in Nairobi.
Gendered Pathways to Nutrition in Tanzania: The Interplay of Household Dynamics, Food Affordability and Adaptive Strategies
(AERC, 2025) Macha, Doris E.; Chegere, Martin J.; Munuo, Adeline
Nutrition is a key driver of health and human development. In Tanzania, however, household power dynamics and economic pressures continue to create gender-based inequalities in food access and consumption. Women and children are often the most affected, as limited control over land, income, and household decisions restricts their ability to obtain and consume nutritious foods. These imbalances directly contribute to poor nutrition outcomes such as higher rates of undernutrition and stunting. Female-headed households face particular challenges. With fewer assets and limited labor support, they are more likely to experience food insecurity and child malnutrition. Addressing these inequities is essential to progress on SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 5 (Gender Equality). Globally, malnutrition remains a major challenge, with approximately 149.2 million children under five experiencing stunting in 2022. In Tanzania, despite progress in agricultural production, food insecurity still affects about one-third of the population, and child stunting remains high. Persistent gender disparities such as unequal access to credit, extension services, and decision-making power undermine national efforts to improve nutrition and overall well-being.
Healthy Diets in Eight West African Countries: Access and Preferences
(AERC, 2025) Gilbert, Rachel; Guene, Herve; Kazianga, Harounan; Harounan, William; Nana, Mohamed
This policy brief describes findings from a study on the role of income and preferences in the consumption of healthy diets in eight West African countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo). Applying the Exact Affine Stone Index (EASI) demand system to data from nationally representative household surveys collected in 2018 and 2021, we find that greater affordability of healthy diets, either from higher income or lower prices, generally leads to improved nutritional quality of foods actually consumed. However, increased income is spread over many household needs, so that only a fraction of income growth is spent on improved nutrition. Meanwhile, lower prices for nutritious foods have both income and substitution effects, so price reductions lead to larger improvements in diet quality than would income gains of the same monetary value. These patterns arise partly due to changes in nonfood spending and partly due to changes in food spending that meet household goals other than health, such as convenience, taste, and aspirations.
Improving Food Access in Dar es Salaam’s Urban Peripheries: The Role of Weekly Markets
(2025) Kissoly, Luitfred; Ngassa, Claudio; Norman, Fatma; Rutatora, Sabrina; Aluko, Angela
Ensuring access to safe and nutritious food is a growing policy priority across Africa, where rapid urbanization and population growth are transforming cities. By 2050, sub-Saharan Africa’s (SSA) population will reach about 2.5 billion, with 60% living in urban areas and up to 15 mega-cities emerging (UN-DESA, 2021; Chen et al., 2022). Much of this growth is happening in urban peripheries with limited infrastructure, where access to food, water, and sanitation remains inadequate (Ingwani et al., 2024; Meth et al., 2021). Amid these gaps, Weekly Food Markets (WFMs) have become crucial food access points. Operated semi-formally by local authorities, they allow small vendors to sell fresh, affordable foods directly to consumers (Hiebert et al., 2017). This policy brief examines how WFMs contribute to nutritious food access in Dar es Salaam, the fastest-growing city in Tanzania, where many peri-urban households rely on such informal outlets (Blekking et al., 2023). The insights aim to inform inclusive food policies that improve access for underserved urban populations.
Improving Household Nutrition through Biofortified Foods: Gender-Responsive Policy Options
(AERC, 2025) Assoua, Joe E.; Kareem, Fatima Olanike; Bomdzele, Eric Junior; Etah, Ayuk Justine
Biofortification has been shown to provide numerous health and nutrition benefits, including Vitamin A, iron, and zinc to women of childbearing age and children under 5, as well as improve food security and increase food accessibility (Foley et al., 2021; Ruel & Alderman, 2013). In Rwanda, biofortification is a central focus of the government’s national agricultural policies and strategies with the aim of addressing micronutrient deficiencies prevalent among vulnerable groups like women and children, to combat malnutrition and improve public health outcomes. Despite the concerted efforts to increase the production and consumption of biofortified foods, the consumption of these products is still low, and household food and nutrition insecurity persist. It thus becomes imperative to ascertain how the interplay of factors at the household level can explain the willingness to purchase nutrition-enhanced food.
Improving Nutritious Food Access through Subsidies and Safety Nets: Evidence from Malawi’s Low-Income Households
(AERC, 2025) Chilora, Lemekezani K.; Salonga, Dinah T.; Chiwaula, Levison; Kalumikiza, Zione
Malnutrition continues to pose a threat to global development, with a stunting rate of 22% in 2020 (WHO, 2021). Approximately 20% of the population in Africa faces hunger, and sub- Saharan Africa alone accounts for 40% of the global prevalence of hunger and malnutrition (FAO, 2022; FAO et al., 2020). Malawi recorded a 35% level of stunting in 2023, which is very high according to the WHO benchmark of reducing malnutrition to below 20% (WHO, 2010). Inadequate dietary intake and diseases are immediate factors that exacerbate malnutrition, in addition to poor socioeconomic status, household food insecurity, inadequate sanitation, and limited access to healthcare. Moreover, socioeconomic factors such as low household income and education level contribute to malnutrition. These factors impact purchasing power and access to nutritious foods, as well as the knowledge required to make healthy food choices, leading to a lower intake of nutrient-dense foods (Katoch, 2022).
Integrating Street Food Vendors into Zimbabwe’s Economy: Policy Approaches for Economic Inclusion and Social Security
(AERC, 2025) Mutandwa, Edward; Saidi, Petronella T.; Munyaka, Jean-Claude Baraka
Since the year 2000, Zimbabwe’s economy is now largely informal with millions living from these activities that include urban street food vending. However, the government of Zimbabwe has been emphasising the need for illegal urban street food vendors to formalize their activities and daily operations. To this end, a robust policy architecture along with stringent set of bylaws and statutes was enacted with the aim of ensuring formalization of these activities. Due to the perceived high cost of compliance, many urban street food vendors still prefer to operate informally. As a result, they have exposed to a variety of risks mainly emanating from the run-ins with municipal police (Sepadi and Nkosi, 2022). Women, in particular, have faced several risks on a daily basis. The most common form of risk faced by female street vendors is linked to a dearth of licensing and permits which often leads to fines or even imprisonment (Thanh and Duy, 2024). This often precipitates into other gender issues that are not often visible but borne by women. This activity remains critical to the survival of many individuals and households. Subsequently, this research analyses the contribution of urban street food vending to male and female street vendor incomes, and specifically how men and women balance productive and reproductive roles. Furthermore, the research determines how the policy environment is related to the regulatory burden faced by urban street food vendors in Harare, Zimbabwe.
Protecting Household Nutrition in Senegal amid Food Price Shocks: Policy Options to Safeguard Vulnerable Populations
(AERC, 2026) Amy KA; Françoise Okah Efogo,; Assion Lawson SIpoaka; Mamatchi Melila
Food inflation poses a major threat to food and nutrition security in Senegal. In November 2022, food inflation reached 14.1%, significantly reducing households' purchasing power and access to quality food. While progress has been made in reducing chronic malnutrition, acute malnutrition has increased, highlighting a growing vulnerability to price shocks. This policy brief assesses the effects of rising food prices on Senegalese households using a computable general equilibrium model (CGE) combined with a household-level microsimulation module. The results show that an increase in international food prices leads to a 0.34 per cent decline in food consumption, a deterioration in energy intake (+0.28 nutritional poverty points), and a marked deterioration in essential micronutrient intake.
Safeguarding Nutrition in Togo: Policy Responses to Rising Food Prices
(AERC, 2026) Amy KA; Assion Lawson Sipoaka; Françoise Okah Efogo; Mamatchi Melila
Rising food prices significantly reduce food consumption and worsen the nutritional status of households in Togo. The impacts are gender-differentiated and vary between urban and rural areas. Universal policy responses can cushion shocks but place substantial pressure on public finances. Well-targeted, nutrition-sensitive cash or in-kind transfers are the most effective short-term policy response.

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