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Differential Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Education in Nigeria: Implications for Policy Review
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024) Omotoso, Kehinde O.; Adewole, Ololade G.; Gbadegesin, Taiwo F.
COVID-19, a World Health Organization (WHO)-declared pandemic and infectious disease caused by coronavirus, adversely affected various aspects of economies worldwide, with over two million fatalities, and millions of individuals and families affected. Like most countries, Nigeria implemented a lockdown policy restricting all movements except for essential services and functions, to contain the virus. This raises questions about the specific shocks, the catalytic trigger, mitigating strategies, emergent e-learning initiatives, and challenges. This paper investigates the various ways through which COVID-19 influenced the education sector in Nigeria. The study adopted a concurrent mixed method to examine the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on learning activities in Nigeria. It employed the General Household Survey (GHS) panel 2018–2019 Wave 4, the 2020 Nigeria COVID-19 National Longitudinal Phone Surveys (COVID-19 NLPS) and a difference-in-difference method under a natural experiment scenario, complimented by qualitative data collected through organised stakeholder panel interviews across three significant zones: Abuja, Ile-Ife (Osun State) and Port Harcourt (River State). Educational (learning & teaching) shocks emerged due to the lockdown. The paper reports the interconnectivity of shocks that exposed lapses during the COVID-19 pandemic in the governance of the educational system, school environment, home front and learners’ reactive strategies. The variants of the specific shocks and reactive strategies categorically feature multidimensional outlook within the context of private stakeholders (parents and learners) and public stakeholders (education ministry and school administration). The lockdown-induced shock increased the probability of using digital tools to assess learning materials in 2020 compared to 2018/2019, though there was generally low access to digital tools for learning by those affected by the lockdown-induced shock. Several e-learning challenges were identified as many educators were technically deficient due to inadequacy or lack of internet facilities and capacities for new learning styles, android phones/laptops, lack of network coverage or network failures, full subscription to learning platforms such as Zoom or Microsoft Teams not budgeted for, power failure, uneven distribution of new learning facilities during COVID-19 and unpreparedness for the shock. Policy recommendations include the provision of e-learning platforms and projects in schools, and reduction of inequality in the access to e-learning.
Child Development and Family Human Capital Investment Decisions in Nigeria: A Study of Selected States in the Six Geo-Political Zones
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-22) Yelwa, Mohammed; Anyanwu, Sarah O.
The study examined child development and family human capital investment decisions in Nigeria. The study focused on household per capita income and family structure using the Nigeria living standard survey for 2018/2019 for the secondary data analysis and a field survey conducted by the researchers in six states in each of the geopolitical zones in Nigeria for the primary data analysis. The study was anchored on household utility maximization theory using the ordinary least squares (OLS) method to analyse the secondary data. Four different results were obtained. First, the result of findings from the OLS estimate revealed that per capita income had no significant impact on Family Human Capital Investment Decisions (FHCID) and male perception of the cost of education had a significant positive impact on FHCID. On the contrary, multi-dimensional poverty index and female perception of the cost of education had an inverse significant impact on FHCID. The second result revealed that average household size, family residence from 1 to 30 minutes proximity to school and 31 minutes and above proximity to school had no significant impact on FHCID. Dependency ratio showed an inverse significant impact on FHCID and family literacy level showed a significant positive impact on FHCID. The third result from the binary logistics regression showed that age, occupation and place of residence of the household head had no significant impact on FHCID. Gender (female-headed household) and education showed an inverse significant impact on FHCID. However, household head years in business or paid employment showed a positive impact on FHCID. The fourth result from the binary logistics regression revealed that marital status had no significant impact on FHCID; family size had a significant negative impact on FHCID; and family structure (type of parents) and number of girl child in the household had a direct impact on FHCID. This study showed complementarities in the home utility function, such that the marginal product of investments rises as family living standards rise. These findings highlight lifetime inequalities and necessitates a special focus on treatments for low-income households. Understanding human capital development and how diverse elements interact is critical to combating poverty and its intergenerational transmission. As a result, this study made several recommendations. First, the importance of persistent action by the government and other donor agencies such as the United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and The World Bank to address the problems of income inequality and pervasive poverty ravaging Nigeria’s economy. The study strongly recommends that family, especially parents, maintain justice and fairness within the home, to foster constructive, sympathetic and peaceful home, encouraging most children to exhibit excellent academic performance. Third, government agencies and hospitals, especially in rural areas, intensify family planning and birth control campaign to help reduce household size. Fourth, children of the poor be given opportunities for paid employment, to enhance their performance in the school. Fifth, children from poor homes be provided with access to scholarships, free instructional materials and books. Sixth, government and its agencies on education intensify sensitization and campaign for families to embrace Western education, especially in the northern region, promote compulsory primary basic education for all children and prosecute parents of out-of-school children or child labour to serve as a deterrent to others. Finally, the study recommends that non-governmental and religious organizations preach peace and tolerance within the family for the well-being and human capital development of their wards.
Rainfall, Human Capital and Labour Market Outcomes: Evidence from Rural South Africa
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-22) Chakraborty, Kritika Sen; Villa, Kira M.
Rural households rely on several strategies to cope with weather variability, including school-work transitions of adolescents and changes in human capital investments. Using rich longitudinal data from rural South Africa linked with geospatial data on climate indicators, we examined the effect of rainfall realizations on the schooling and work decisions and education expenditures of adolescents and young adults. We exploited the exogenous within-individual variation in exposure to district-level rainfall realizations over age. Our results suggest that current and lagged growing season rainfall increases adolescent human capital investments on the intensive margin among both female and male adolescents. While current rainfall decreased labour market participation among adolescents in non-agricultural households, current rainfall increased female labour supply in agricultural households. We also found that previous-period rainfall positively affected work propensity among all male adolescents. Our results documented schooling and labour supply adjustments among adolescents in agricultural and non-agricultural households, in response to rainfall fluctuations.
Credit Constraints in Higher Education Attendance: Longitudinal Evidence from Ethiopia
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-22) Eigbiremolen, Godstime O.; Orji, Anthony
This paper examines the household wealth–higher education attendance relationship and the evidence on credit constraints in post-secondary schooling. Using unique longitudinal data that link household wealth and measures of cognitive ability age 12 years to higher education attendance at age 19–22 years, we differentiated short-term credit constraints from long-term credit constraints and directly tested the relative importance of short and long-term credit constraints in schooling decision. We found that both short-term and long-term credit constraints determine the household wealth–higher education attendance relationship. Therefore, we recommend complementing short-term policies like financial aid with long-term interventions that empower households to continue to invest in human capital development over the child’s life cycle, which will crystalize in higher cognitive ability and readiness for higher education.
Precolonial Centralization, Koranic Education and School Participation in Nigeria
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-22) Adeolu, Adewole Musiliu
Several studies have documented the persistence of economic development outcomes across space and over a long period of time. Other studies have argued that there has been a reversal of fortune over time and space. Since different areas of current Nigeria were once under the rule of states with different degrees of political centralization and later investment in Koranic education, this study sought to explore whether areas or districts under more centralized political system are more likely to participate in large scale school expansion programmes such as the 1976 Universal Primary Education (UPE) and 1999 Universal Basic Education (UBE). To check for evidence of reversal of fortune, we determine whether degree of state centralization on school participation was more or less in areas that have large investments in Koranic education. The important motivation for this study was the observation that participation in the tuition-free large-scale school expansion programmes implemented nationwide have not closed the disparity in school participation across the various regions of Nigeria. Even more surprising is that regions, such as the North-West and North-East, which fell under pre-colonial states with complex political arrangements have fallen behind in the education race relative the South-East, often regarded as a stateless society, and to some extent the South-South region which had a less complex political structure. This is contrary to the findings of several studies which show a positive relationship between this historical measure of state centralization and several indices of contemporary development outcomes. To explain this special case, we hypothesized that regions that had intensive and extensive contacts with Islamic culture and by extension Koranic education before the onset of Christian missionaries were unlikely to reap the full benefits of pre-colonial centralization. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) results showed that while the index of state centralization has a positive and significant impact on enrolment in UPE and UBE programmes, the effect is negative and statistically significant for those with heavy investment in Koranic education (measured by district fraction of 1914-1946 cohorts with Koranic education). The results are robust to an adding extensive range of explanatory variables and a range of other specification tests. While the structure of the economy at the onset of Islamic activities in Nigeria may have made investment in Koranic education worthwhile, the contemporary world does not require Koranic education to make either regional or national advancement possible. Thus, there is a clear case of mismatch between the demands of modern economic life and the skills possessed by a large-section of it. Thus, well thought out policies are required to address this mismatch and accelerate inclusive economic development
Maternal Education, Economic Empowerment, and Infant Mortality in Burkina Faso
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-22) BARRO, Lamissa; TIENDREBEOGO, Aïcha; NANA, Issa; Mawuvi KY, Landry Paul Armand
Education levels in Burkina Faso, especially among women, remain low despite efforts made by government authorities and development partners to implement priority area 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). This situation presents difficulties for women in terms of their being economically and socially empowered. At the same time, the infant mortality rate in Burkina Faso is higher than the average for sub Saharan Africa. This study therefore used data derived from health and population surveys to provide evidence of the combined impact of the level of education and economic empowerment of women on infant mortality, using an instrumental variables approach on a linear probability model. The results highlight the positive impact of the education levels of women understood through the aspect of literacy and their economic empowerment, in terms of probability of gain, decision-making power in relation to those gains and in relation to the family’s level of expenditure. Nevertheless, the impact of the level of economic empowerment of mothers remains mixed. In regard to economic policy, emphasis should be laid upon the strengthening of policies related to education of girls to ensure their empowerment in the future.
The Effectiveness of Work Linked Vocational Training Programmes in Senegal
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-22) Lioniel, Mafang; Dumas, Tsambou André; Bertin, Malou Jonas; Gnilane, Diouf Marie Ndeye
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of work-linked vocational training in Senegal. In order to do so, we focussed on four specific objectives. First, we identified the main factors that promote or limit access to work-linked vocational training by the youth. Second, we evaluated the impact of work-linked vocational training on the income of youth in the labour market. Third, we evaluated the impact of vocational training on access to regular and stable employment. Fourth, we evaluated the impact of vocational training on labour productivity. To achieve these objectives, we used an endogenous switching regression (ESR) model and an endogenous switching probit model. We examined the robustness of the results using propensity score matching. These methodologies take into account observed and unobserved factors, thus enabling us to handle selection and endogeneity problems that may be related to vocational training. They were used to evaluate data derived from the Employment Policy Improvement Survey (EAPE) that was carried out in 2018 in Senegal. The results suggest that the sampled groups of youth that participated in vocational training display characteristics that differ from those of the sampled groups of youth that did not participate in vocational training. The sampled groups of youths who benefitted from training had a probability 19.27 percentage points higher, on average, of accessing a permanent job, and 24.18 percentage points higher of accessing temporary employment. These youth also had a probability 57.8 percentage points higher of accessing stable employment than youth that did not benefit from vocational training.
Importance of Investing in the First 1,000 Days of Life: Evidence and Policy Options
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-22) Onsomu, Lydia Kemunto; Ng’eno, Haron
Investment in the first 1,000 days of life is important for human capital development. The basic needs and services in these days of life are maternal healthcare; child healthcare; mobilization of mothers to seek early antenatal care; increasing hospital deliveries; enhancing exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life; increasing knowledge on the proper weaning diet; immunization; and early diagnosis and treatment of common childhood illnesses. However, there is a dearth evidence on the importance of investing in the early years of life. The purpose of this study was to explore the role of investing in the first 1,000 days of life for improved human capital accumulation. The study utilized the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) 2022 data. Using the Cox regression hazard model, the study found out that twins have a higher risk of mortality than single births and firstborns were less likely to die before their fifth birthday than the children born after them. The findings also indicate that an increase in the household size by 1 individual reduces the likelihood of death for children aged less than 1 year and for children aged between 13 and 60 months. Children from female-headed households reported a lower likelihood of mortality. Perhaps this is because of assurance of breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life when the child is living with the mother, increasing the probability of knowledge on the proper weaning diet and improved uptake of immunization by the mother. The likelihood of mortality for children whose mothers reported health comorbidities was higher than for those who reported good health. Children younger than 1 year of mothers who were assisted during delivery were less likely to die than those whose parents were assisted during delivery. In relation to the place of delivery, children who were delivered at a government health facility were less likely to die than those who were born at home. Based on these findings, the study recommends provision of civic education to pregnant and new mothers on the risks facing their new-borns and the importance of following the laid out public health protocols of the first 1,000 days of life to ensure the children’s survival..
The Impact of Women’s Participation in the Labour Market on the Academic Performance of Children in Senegal
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-22) Ndoye, Mamadou Laye; Atchade, Touwédé Bénédicte
This study sought a better understanding of the impact of a mother’s participation in the labour market, on the academic performance of children in their primary school certificate examinations. The study used a recursive bivariate probit model in order to treat the endogeneity of the variable “mother’s participation in the labour market”. The data used in the study were drawn from the Integrated Regional Survey on Employment and the Informal Sector (ERI-ESI-2018). The results demonstrated that a mother’s participation in the labour market has a negative impact on the academic performance of children in their primary school years. These results inform us of the need to address the challenges faced by working mothers by providing them with the support they need to establish a balance between their professional and maternal responsibilities.
Nexus between Non-Cognitive and Cognitive Skills and their Joint effect on Labour Market Outcomes: Evidence from Youths aged 15–25 years in Kenya
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-22) Onsomu,Carol Bisieri; Macharia, John; Mwangi, Stephie
Cognitive skills, rooted in specific neural networks, and soft skills, comprising personal traits, attitudes, and motivations, jointly contribute to workforce adaptability in the ever-changing landscape of modern workplaces. Recognizing their pivotal role in enhancing human capital quality, this study explored their joint impact on labour market outcomes, including probability of employment. Traditionally, economists have predominantly emphasized cognitive skills, overlooking the significance of the non-cognitive dimension. Within the context of Kenya, the government has launched initiatives to empower its youth for social and economic development and the education sector has expanded. Despite this background, these efforts fall short of producing adequately trained middle level human capital, hindering national progress. This situation is aggravated by the grave concern of a job market mismatch, resulting in soaring youth unemployment rates. The root cause of this mismatch can be partly traced to the limited inclusion of non-cognitive skills in education curricula, despite ongoing reforms largely centred on cognitive development. Both in education and the workplace, non-cognitive factors emerge as stronger predictors of success than their cognitive counterparts. Occupations demanding a blend of cognitive and non-cognitive skills offer higher employment prospects and wage premiums. A synthesis of these skill sets renders workers more valuable and better positioned for career advancement. Addressing the pressing issue of youth unemployment necessitates the alignment of youth skills with labour market demands. This research seeks to address two key challenges: gender disparity and the mismatch between youth skills and available job opportunities. Using binary logistic regression, this study identified factors influencing youth employment, with a specific focus on the interplay between skills and values. Key findings underscore the importance of both cognitive and non-cognitive skills in labour market outcomes, with individuals possessing a combination of these skills enjoying improved employment prospects and career success. The study also revealed that the complementarity between agreeableness and digital literacy skills has a positive impact on the employment likelihood of female youth. Marital status signifies stability and responsibility, while education levels augment an individual’s competencies, enhancing competitiveness in the job market. Consequently, this study emphasizes the equivalence of personality traits and cognitive abilities in the eyes of employers and advocates for curriculum reform that integrates personality traits into employers’ selection criteria.
Impact of Teacher Qualification and Experience on Early Grade Achievement in Kenya
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2024-08-23) Sitati, Melap; Murebu, Rosemary; Ngugi, Rose; Onsomu, Eldah
The importance of teacher quality on early grade achievement of cognitive skills is the current policy discourse. Teacher quality is a key factor that influences learner’s achievement at all levels of schooling. This paper uses a multiple regression technique on Public Expenditure Tracking (PETs) and Service Delivery Indicators survey data (2014/2015) to interrogate the impact of teacher quality in terms of qualification in teacher training and experience on early grade achievement of cognitive skills in Kenya. Although the study reveals that teacher qualification in terms of training is the single-most important attribute that impacts on learner achievement, there is no significant difference between the teacher level of training on learner performance regardless of the time taken to acquire those qualifications. Interestingly, results showed that learners taught by certificate holders in teaching performed better than the ones taught by diploma holders. Pedagogical training, which is taught at certificate level, for teaching at primary education level is significant in affecting learner performance compared to diploma, yet the latter takes more duration and resources. The evidence also shows that teacher experience significantly affects learner performance especially in reading. However, further research could investigate how different type of school interventions amplify or weaken the effects of teachers on learners’ cognitive skill. The study recommends enhanced teacher professional development, more focus on in-service training on pedagogical skills acquired at the primary certificate level, equitable teacher distribution, and provision of adequate teaching and learning materials in school. It is also important to ensure that newly employed teachers have the required pedagogical skills and that they are provided with adequate pedagogical training programmes.

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