Agricultural Policy Analysis for Nutrition Outcomes

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Nexus of Agricultural Policies and Nutrition Outcomes: Linkages Between Land Access Policies and Nutrition Outcomes in SSA
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2022-10) Pindiriri, Carren
The need to make agricultural policies more useful for nutrition has stirred interest in the study of the impact of agriculture policies on nutrition. It is from this viewpoint that this paper provides an economic theoretical linkage between land policies and nutritional outcomes, and assesses the nutritional implications of shrinking or increasing arable land sizes in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). First, using theoretical derivations, the study demonstrates that the association between landholding status and household nutrition is influenced by complex associations between intervening variables which require the use of micro-level data. Second, making use of case studies based on micro-level analyses, and the application of national-level data, the findings confirm that land reforms that provide access to arable land are nutrition sensitive. In addition, the results show that market-driven land reforms are more nutrition sensitive than politically or government-driven reforms. The state of the health system also significantly influences nutritional outcomes. The main policy implication is that SSA countries can significantly improve nutritional outcomes through improved land access via market-driven reforms. There is also a need to strengthen health delivery systems to reduce the prevalence of malnutrition. Last, countries in SSA must intensify research on the impact of agricultural policies using micro-level data in order to address the complexity of the relationship between nutrition and land policies.
Linkages Between Agricultural Extension Policies and Nutrition Outcomes
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2022-10) Sarpong, Daniel Bruce
The important role agriculture plays in African economies and livelihoods, and the strong linkages that agriculture forges with other sectors, cannot be overemphasized. Promoting agricultural growth spurs economic development in upstream and downstream subsectors (NEPAD, 2013). Agricultural performance, through its direct impact on job creation and increasing opportunities, especially for women and the youth, food security and improved nutrition, and strengthening resilience, is key to growth and poverty reduction in Africa. Since 2016, the African Economic Research Consortium (AERC) has implemented several activities under the “Analysis of the Impact of Agricultural, Food and Nutrition Policies on Nutrition Outcomes in Africa” (AFPON) project by exploring the link between agricultural policies and nutrition outcomes in Africa. The AFPON project, on one part, sought to analyse how agricultural productivity, agricultural extension and advisory services affect nutrition outcomes in order to establish policies and practices that would improve food security and nutritional status. Several papers on agricultural extension policies were produced in the course of the project’s implementation. In this paper, a review and synthesis of AFPON research papers on the linkages between agricultural extension policies and nutritional outcomes are provided in order to understand the linkages between, and the impact of, agricultural extension policies on nutrition outcomes.In this paper, we examine the available literature on agriculture, nutrition and health linkages, delineate the agricultural extension policy and nutrition outcome nexus, and provide empirical evidence informed by the AFPON research outputs. We undertake a synthesis of the AFPON research outputs by examining whether the agricultural extension-(policy)-nutrition outcomes nexus has been empirically deduced. The paper finally presents agricultural policy implications for addressing the challenges associated with malnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).
Methods and Metrics for Food Security and Nutrition Outcome Indicators
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2022-11) Colecraf, Esi K.; Otoo, Gloria E.
Agriculture influences food production, food is a component of diets, and diets influence nutritional status. Agricultural policies and interventions impact nutritional outcomes by through several pathways that influence the quantity and quality of food consumed by individuals. Nutritional outcomes, usually assessed by physical measurements (anthropometry), are measured at the individual level, as they relate to what an individual consumes and the process of absorbing and utilizing nutrients within the body (Aberman et al., 2015). A nutrition-sensitive intervention aims to contribute to better nutritional outcomes by addressing the underlying determinants of malnutrition such as access to safe and nutritious foods (quantity and quality/diversity), adequate care and a healthy and hygienic environment. Dietary quality is a key intermediary between agriculture and nutrition. Individual dietary quality is best measured by dietary diversity, which is a measure of nutritional adequacy. This means that agriculture interventions and policies, designed to increase food production, only address one aspect of food security (FS). Thus, the appropriate indicator needs to be selected to determine the impact of agriculture on nutrition. For example, an agricultural intervention that only addresses the availability of food, the lack of which manifests as hunger or acute malnutrition, will most likely be assessing wasting or weight-for-height (a nutritional status indicator) as this is the most appropriate nutritional outcome related to increases in household food availability. However, a different nutritional outcome indicator will be required when the interest of the intervention is to improve diet quality. In this case, a better nutritional outcome is stunting, assessed by height for-age. For an agricultural intervention, e.g., biofortification, where improvements made in the food system are reflected in the increased micronutrient content of food (e.g., Vitamin A content in orange-flesh sweet potatoes), a biochemical metric of nutritional status rather than anthropometry might be necessary. While nutrition sensitive, consumption data alone are not a nutrition indicator because it does not directly lead to improved nutritional outcomes. The objective of this paper is to describe existing and current metrics for assessing food security and nutritional status outcomes. This review looks at different metrics, especially ones that are more relevant to developing food security measures, diet quality and nutritional status.
Nutritional Deficiency and Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture: Evidence from Nigeria
(African Economic Research Consortium,, 2023) Aderemi, Taiwo A.
This study investigates the relationship between women’s empowerment in agriculture, their nutritional status and those of their children. Growing empirical evidence suggests that a positive link exists, but that not all empowerment dimensions influence nutritional outcomes. Using 2010 to 2016 LSMS-ISA household survey data for Nigeria, specific evidence on this topic was provided. Our findings show that no relationship exists between women who hold agricultural land and credit, and their energy calorie intake. Women’s joint holding of land and other agricultural inputs positively influence their nutritional calorie intake. Children’s anthropometry responds positively to women’s empowerment indicators, although with a differential impact for boys and girls. Women’s access to agricultural inputs and land rights are necessary conditions for maximizing the potential benefit derived from the women-empowerment-nutrition link. Improvement in anthropometry scores of girls among empowered women should be considered a priority for intervention programmes.
Effects of Food Price Shocks on Nutrition Outcomes Among Farm Households in Nigeria: Implications for Food-Price-Related Policies
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2023) Akerele, Dare; Fadare, Olusegun; Ogunniyi, Adebayo; Rufai, Mistura; Adeyemi, Olutayo
The starting point towards advancing nutrition-sensitive food price policies in Nigeria is a nationally representative empirical study on the effects of food price shocks on children’s nutrition outcomes. This study uses data from the Nigeria Living Standard Measurement Study – Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) of the years 2013 and 2016. A correlated random probit and a pooled panel data probit regression were employed in the analysis. The data description shows a notable concentration of wasting and stunting in Northern Nigeria, and in households characterized by low income, low education level, and not using insecticide-treated bednets. Shocks in the prices of rice and vegetables can substantially enhance the risks of child stunting, while wasting prevalence in children is positively associated with fish and dairy price shocks. Thus, this study lends support to nutrition-sensitive food price policies that are geared towards calming a surge in food prices, especially the prices of rice, vegetables, fish and dairy.
Measuring the Impact of Farm input Subsidy Policy on Child Nutrition in Botswana
(African Economic Research Consortium,, 2023) Marumo, Davis; Bokang, Rakanyane
This paper examines the linkage between the farm input subsidy policy (ISPAAD) and nutritional status of children in Botswana using propensity score matching and an ordinary least squares regression. Participation of the child’s parent in ISPAAD, weight of child’s mother, mother’s education level, sex of the child, access to health facilities and type of settlement had a significant positive effect on height-for-age z-scores of children at a 5% level of significance. Total household earnings and access to medical insurance had a statistically significant negative effect on the height-for-age z-score of the child at a 5% level of significance. Agricultural policy can enhance nutritional outcomes in society if it is made more nutrition-focussed and nutrition-sensitive.
The Effects of Access to Credit on Household Nutritional Outcomes in Ghana
(2023) Issahaku, Haruna; Abu, Benjamin Musah
This study measures the effects of credit on anthropometric measures of children and women in Ghana's Savannah Accelerated Development Authority (SADA) zone. The study argues that children’s anthropometric measures share some relationship and thus need to be modelled as a system. Therefore, we employ the three-stage system of simultaneous equations (reg3) to deal with the structural system and endogeneity of credit in the children’s model, and an extended probit with binary endogenous covariate (eprobit) in the women’s model. In addition, we test the pathways of credit to nutrition using data from the USAID Ghana Feed the Future (FTF) baseline survey. The results show that credit has a simultaneously strong positive effect on nutritional outcomes of children and reduces the probability of a woman being underweight. Further, crop yield, market participation, income from crop sales, and non-farm business ownership are the key channels through which credit influences nutrition. Through relevant the institutions, the government should establish a full-blown farm credit policy to provide credit to farm households.
The Effect of the Microcredit Policy of the Government of Benin in Improving Nutrition
(2023) Dedehouanou, Sènakpon Fidèle Ange; Lokonon, Boris Odilon K; Djossou, Gbetoton Nadege
Many African countries are suffering from food insecurity and undernourishment of the population in the context of imperfect credit markets. Microcredit-related policies have been initiated to address these issues, but the interventions have had mixed effects. In this paper, we assess the extent to which the microcredit to the poorest (MCPG), a microcredit policy of the Government of Benin, has an influence on nutrition. We estimate the household-level and individual-level nutritional impacts using national household survey and demographic, and health survey databases and a modeling framework that accounts for the endogeneity of accessing the MCPG. We find positive linkages between the MCPG and household and individual nutrition outcomes. The largest positive effects are observed among households using microcredit to buy food and among female-headed households. The MCPG would thus benefit not only individual beneficiaries within the household but also the other members through an “insurance” or “investment” channel.
Agricultural Marketing Policies and Household Dietary Diversity and Nutrition in Tanzania
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2023-07) Martin, Julius Chegere; Kauky, Monica Sebastian
The consumption of nutrient-rich foods is sensitive to changes in income and price shocks, especially for low-income consumers. This study employs Tanzania National Panel Survey data to explore the linkage between agricultural marketing, dietary diversity and nutrition status in Tanzania. Findings reveal that market orientation significantly affect dietary diversity for lower income groups, while for the whole sample, the effect is indirect through overall income. Household dietary diversity significantly correlates with a lower probability of child stunting, which becomes insignificant when overall income is controlled; and female education and overall income have significant effects on dietary diversity and child nutrition. The findings suggest a judicious use of money obtained from the sales of agricultural products.
Does Women’s Time on the Farm Affect Children’s Nutritional Status? Evidence from Tanzania
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2023-07) Machio, Phyllis Mumia
The time allocation between reproductive and productive work in agriculture has implications for nutrition (Stevano et al., 2019). Spending many hours on the farm reduces the time available for engaging in domestic nutrition-improving chores. This study seeks to examine the effect of hours women worked on farms on the nutritional status (height for age and weight for age) of children. The study uses three waves of the Tanzania National Panel survey data. We estimate a random effects instrumental variable estimation technique. The results show that women who work long hours on the farm increases the likelihood of children being stunted and underweight. The study recommends policies that can help reduce hours worked by women on farms. Women can be encouraged to form work groups that they can use for their agricultural activities. The local government can also invest in farm machinery that women can hire at subsidized prices.
A Comparative Assessment of the Impacts of Malawi Farm Input Subsidy and Irrigation Policies on Child Nutrition Status
(African Economic Research Consortium,, 2023-07) Chiwaula, Levison; Cassim, Lucius; Manja, Laston
Farm input subsidy (FISP) and irrigation programmes are two of the top agricultural policy interventions that compete for resources in Malawi. Although pockets of information exist on the impacts of these policies, there is no study that compares the respective intervention impacts on child nutrition status to guide policymakers in the face of competing needs. Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap. Using data from the Fourth Integrated Household Survey (IHS4), an instrumental variables (IV) approach and quasi-experimental techniques of propensity score matching (PSM) were used to measure the impacts. The findings show that children from households that are beneficiaries of FISP have better nutrition statuses than children from non FISP or irrigation-practising households. However, the study fails to find a significant joint impact on child nutrition status, much less an individual impact, of irrigation policies, partly due to data limitations, which calls for a further, well-designed study to validate findings.
The Impact of Changes in Nutritional Policy on the Determinants of Child Stunting: The Case of Rural and Urban Zambia
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2023-07) Bwalya, Richard; Kalinda, Thomson
This paper evaluates the impact of changes in nutritional policies on the underlying determinants of child stunting in Zambia using data from the 2010 and 2015 Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS). Regression results show that although there are commonalities across rural and urban areas as well as between 2010 and 2015 in terms of the determinants of child stunting, significant differences between the regions and periods exist, which may have implications for the design of interventions. Decomposition results show that differences in the levels of endowment account for the majority of the observed differences in stunting between rural and urban areas for both periods, implying that interventions aimed at overcoming rural-urban disparities in child nutrition outcomes need to focus principally on bridging gaps in socioeconomic endowments.
The Impact of Agricultural Land Ownership on Child Nutritional Status: Evidence from Rural Sudan
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2023-07) Nour, Samia Mohamed; Ebaidalla, M. Ebaidalla
This paper investigates the causal effect of agricultural landholding on child nutritional status in rural Sudan, using the 2014 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS). Adopting propensity score matching (PSM) and instrumental variable (IV) techniques, the paper indicates that landholding significantly reduces child malnutrition for the full and female samples, implying that for children whose families have access to agricultural land, there is a reduced likelihood that they would be exposed to child nutrition problems such as stunting and underweight. For the male sample, the results reveal that agricultural landholding plays no significant role in improving the nutritional outcome of male children. This finding implies a gender disparity in the effect of landholding on children nutritional situation, as girls benefit significantly from agricultural landholding compared to boys. Therefore, policies that support land reform and a fair distribution of land would be a crucial part of a strategy to reduce the malnutrition of children under five in rural Sudan.
Understanding Child Nutritional Outcomes of Land Reform Policy in Zimbabwe from a Gender Perspective
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2023-07) Mujeyi, Kingstone; Mangoma, Virginia Chipo; Chikobvu, Shamiso
This paper analyzes the effect of land reform policy on child nutrition outcomes in Zimbabwe, and estimates whether the effect differs based on gender of household head. Using nationally representative Rural Livelihoods Assessment Survey data collected in 2017, the study employs an endogenous switching regression model to control for selection bias and endogeneity. The results show that benefitting from land reform increases the likelihood of both stunting and wasting in children. From a gender perspective, the paper provides evidence that benefitting from land reform significantly reduces the likelihood of child stunting in female-headed households. The study recommends that land reform policies should enhance access to land for women as a strategy for reducing child malnutrition.
Effect of Land Policies and Women Empowerment on Nutrition: Panel Data Evidence from Malawi
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2023-07) Nyirenda, Zephania Bondera
There is growing interest in the productivity impacts of land tenure regularization and separately in nutritional outcomes of increased agricultural productivity. Nonetheless,there is minimal scientific evidence on the linkages between land tenure security and nutrition. This paper analyses the impact of land tenure security of households and women on maize productivity, agricultural income and nutrition (household dietary diversity, micronutrient dietary diversity, food consumption scores, calorie, Vitamin A, Iron and Zinc intake). Using nationally representative panel data from Malawi, the study reveals that land tenure security has a positive and statistically significant influence on household and women headed household’s agricultural income and negative and statistically significant influence on household and women headed household’s maize productivity. In addition, the study found that land tenure security of households and women headed households is positively and significantly associated with calorie, Vitamin A, Iron and Zinc intake. The relationship between land tenure security and dietary diversity is positive but not statistically significant. However, land tenure security is inversely associated with food consumption scores both for households and female headed households. Thus, we can expect the registration of customary land under the new land laws to accelerate women's empowerment and household nutrition in Malawi significantly.
Household Landholding, Diversification of Agricultural Activities and Child Nutrition Status in Uganda
(African Economic Research Consortium, 2023-07) Faisal, Buyinza; Mayanja,Teera Joweeria
Using household-level data from the Uganda National Panel Survey, a panel probit estimation technique is employed to explain the causal relationship between household landholding, diversification of agricultural activities and children’s nutritional status in Uganda. Our results indicate that household landholding and diversification of agricultural activities are significant factors that influence children’s nutritional status. The results also indicate that food production among households is vital for household dietary diversity, which affects children’s nutritional status. Our findings indicate that access to landholding by households is key to increased food production. In addition, there is a need to diversify farming systems and diversify income sources. Finally, there is a need for promoting access to local markets to enable households to sell their produce more easily, and to purchase the food they require.

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